Residential environment, physical activity and depressive symptoms in adults
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.30671/nordia.162601Abstract
Depression is, at its worst, a fatal disease and a significant factor threatening work ability. Recent studies have suggested physical activity as an effective treatment for depression. Scientific evidence on the beneficial association between physical activity and depressive symptoms is strong. Recently, studies have also highlighted the residential environment’s importance for both mental health and physical activity. Due to accelerating urbanisation, it is increasingly important to understand how our living environment affects our physical movement behaviour and mental health.
This study’s aims were to I) compare the prevalence of depression symptoms in different countries, II) investigate how characteristics of the residential environment and physical activity are associated with depressive symptoms, and III) study how 24-hour movement behaviours (physical activity, sedentary time and sleep) are associated with depressive symptoms in urban and rural residents. The main data for the study were collected from individuals born in Northern Finland in 1966 when they were 46 years old (n=5,860). In addition, the first substudy utilised previously published research articles to compare the prevalence of depressive symptoms between different countries. The characteristics of the residential environment, based on the participants’ home coordinates, were examined using geographic information system methods. Physical activity was measured using both a questionnaire and accelerometer-based activity monitors that the participants wore for 2 weeks. Depressive symptoms were assessed in all studies based on the second version of the Beck Depression Inventory.
The results indicated that depressive symptoms vary between countries. Higher urbanicity and population density of the residential environment were associated with a higher odds of more severe depressive symptoms, while higher greenness was associated with a lower odds of severe depressive symptoms. More time spent in moderate to vigorous physical activity or sleep at the expense of light activity or sedentary behaviour within a 24-hour day was associated with lower depressive symptoms in those living in rural areas. According to this study’s results, preserving and increasing green spaces in urban planning and taking into account all the movement behaviours of the 24-hour day, for example in health care and physical activity recommendations, could be ways to decrease depressive symptoms at the population level. It is also important to consider the differences in movement behaviours between those living in urban and rural areas. Future research in longitudinal settings is needed to confirm causal relationships, in particular, between residential environment and depressive symptoms.
References
Aasen H (2001) An empirical investigation of depression symptoms: Norms, psychometric characteristics and factor structure of the Beck Depression Inventory II. Master’s Thesis, University of Bergen.
Ahad AA, Sanchez-Gonzalez M & Junquera P (2023) Understanding and addressing mental health stigma across cultures for improving psychiatric care: A narrative review. Cureus 15(5): e39549. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.39549
Ainsworth BE, Haskell WL, Leon AS, Jacobs DR Jr., Montoye HJ, Sallis JF et al. (1993) Compendium of physical activities: Classification of energy costs of human physical activities. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 25(1): 71–80. https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199301000-00011
Alvarez GG & Ayas NT (2004) The impact of daily sleep duration on health: A review of the literature. Progress in Cardiovascular Nursing 19(2): 56–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0889-7204.2004.02422.x
Amagasa S, Machida M, Fukushima N, Kikuchi H, Takamiya T, Odagiri Y et al. (2018) Is objectively measured light-intensity physical activity associated with health outcomes after adjustment for moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in adults? A systematic review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 15(65). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-018-0695-z
American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC.
Amireault S, Godin G & Vézina-Im L-A (2013) Determinants of physical activity maintenance: A systematic review and meta-analyses. Health Psychology Review 7(1): 55–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2012.701060
Arent SM, Walker AJ & Arent MA (2020) The effects of exercise on anxiety and depression. In Tenenbaum G & Eklund RC (eds.) Handbook of sport psychology (4th ed.), 872–890. Wiley, Hoboken, New Jersey. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119568124.ch42
Ball K, Carver A, Downing K, Jackson M & O’Rourke K (2015) Addressing the social determinants of inequities in physical activity and sedentary behaviours. Health Promotion International 30(suppl_2): ii8–ii19. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/dav022
Baptiste A (2017) gridExtra: Miscellaneous functions for “grid” graphics. https://cran.r-project.org/package=gridExtra (accessed 7 May 2025)
Baranyi G, Sieber S, Pearce J, Cullati S, Dibben C & Cheval B (2022) Lower social participation partly explains the association between perceived neighbourhood crime and depressive symptoms in European adults aged 50 years or older: A longitudinal mediation analysis. Preventive Medicine 155: 106954. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2022.106954
Bauman A, Phongsavan P, Schoeppe S & Owen N (2006) Physical activity measurement: A primer for health promotion. Promotion & Education 13(2): 92–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/10253823060130020103
Bauman AE, Reis RS, Sallis JF, Wells JC, Loos RJF & Martin BW (2012) Correlates of physical activity: Why are some people physically active and others not? The Lancet 380(9838): 258–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60735-1
Beck AT, Ward M, Mendelson J, Mock J, Erbaugh, & Philadelphia (1961) An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 4: 561–571. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710120031004
Beck AT & Steer RA (1993) Beck Depression Inventory manual. Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, Texas.
Beck AT, Steer RA & Brown GK (1996) Manual for Beck Depression Inventory-II. Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX.
Beck AT, Steer RA & Brown GK (2005) BDI-II Käsikirja [Beck Depression Inventory-II]. Psykologien Kustannus Oy, Helsinki.
Beck AT & Alford BA (2009) Depression: Causes and treatment (2nd ed.). University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
Bellón JÁ, Conejo-Cerón S, Sánchez-Calderón A, Rodríguez-Martín B, Bellón D, Rodríguez-Sánchez E et al. (2021) Effectiveness of exercise-based interventions in reducing depressive symptoms in people without clinical depression: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. The British Journal of Psychiatry 219(5): 578–587. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2021.5
Birtel MD & Mitchell BL (2023) Cross-cultural differences in depression between White British and South Asians: Causal attributions, stigma by association, discriminatory potential. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice 96(1): 101–116. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12428
Biswas A, Oh PI, Faulkner GE, Bajaj RR, Silver MA, Mitchell MS et al. (2015) Sedentary time and its association with risk for disease incidence, mortality, and hospitalization in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Annals of Internal Medicine 162(2): 123–132. https://doi.org/10.7326/M14-1651
Bjorvatn B, Saxvig IW, Waage S & Pallesen S (2021) Self-reported seasonality is strongly associated with chronotype and weakly associated with latitude. Chronobiology International 38(2): 278–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/07420528.2020.1844725
Blodgett JM, Ahmadi MN, Atkin AJ, Pulsford RM, Rangul V, Chastin S et al. (2025) Device-measured 24-hour movement behaviors and blood pressure: A 6-part compositional individual participant data analysis in the ProPASS Consortium. Circulation 151(2): 159–170. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.124.069820
Blodgett JM, Mitchell JJ, Stamatakis E, Chastin S & Hamer M (2023) Associations between the composition of daily time spent in physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep and risk of depression: Compositional data analyses of the 1970 British cohort Study. Journal of Affective Disorders 320: 616–620. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JAD.2022.09.110
Boakye K, Bovbjerg M, Schuna J, Branscum A, Varma RP, Ismail R et al. (2023) Urbanization and physical activity in the global Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiology study. Scientific Reports 13(1): 290. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-26406-5
Brown G & Raymond C (2007) The relationship between place attachment and landscape values: Toward mapping place attachment. Applied Geography 27(2): 89–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2006.11.002
Browning M & Lee K (2017) Within what distance does “greenness” best predict physical health? A systematic review of articles with GIS buffer analyses across the lifespan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14070675
Brownson RC, Hoehner CM, Day K, Forsyth A & Sallis JF (2009) Measuring the built environment for physical activity: State of the science. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 36(4, Supplement): S99–S123.e12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2009.01.005
Brupbacher G, Gerger H, Zander-Schellenberg T, Straus D, Porschke H, Gerber M et al. (2021) The effects of exercise on sleep in unipolar depression: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Sleep Medicine Reviews 59: 101452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2021.101452
Bull FC, Al-Ansari SS, Biddle S, Borodulin K, Buman MP, Cardon G et al. (2020) World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. British Journal of Sports Medicine 54(24): 1451–1462. https://doi.org/10.1136/BJSPORTS-2020-102955
Bull F, Willumsen J, Stevens G & Strain T (2024) Global levels of physical inactivity in adults: Off track for 2030. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240096905
Caspersen CJ, Powell KE & Christenson GM (1985) Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health-related research. Public Health Reports 100(2): 126–131.
Celis-Morales CA, Perez-Bravo F, Ibañez L, Salas C, Bailey MES & Gill JMR (2012) Objective vs. self-reported physical activity and sedentary time: Effects of measurement method on relationships with risk biomarkers. PloS One 7(5): e36345. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036345
Chastin SFM, De Craemer M, De Cocker K, Powell L, Van Cauwenberg J, Dall P et al. (2019) How does light-intensity physical activity associate with adult cardiometabolic health and mortality? Systematic review with meta-analysis of experimental and observational studies. British Journal of Sports Medicine 53(6): 370–376. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097563
Chastin SFM, Palarea-Albaladejo J, Dontje ML & Skelton DA (2015) Combined effects of time spent in physical activity, sedentary behaviors and sleep on obesity and cardio-metabolic health markers: A novel compositional data analysis approach. PLOS ONE 10(10): e0139984. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0139984
Chekroud SR, Gueorguieva R, Zheutlin AB, Paulus M, Krumholz HM, Krystal JH et al. (2018) Association between physical exercise and mental health in 1·2 million individuals in the USA between 2011 and 2015: A cross-sectional study. The Lancet Psychiatry 5(9): 739–746. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30227-X
Chen SX & Mak WWS (2008) Seeking professional help: Etiology beliefs about mental illness across cultures. Journal of Counseling Psychology 55(4): 442–450. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012898
Chentsova-Dutton YE, Choi E, Ryder AG & Reyes J (2015) “I felt sad and did not enjoy life”: Cultural context and the associations between anhedonia, depressed mood, and momentary emotions. Transcultural Psychiatry 52(5): 616–635. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461514565850
Cloninger CR, Przybeck TR, Svrakic DM & Wetzel RD (1994) The temperament and character inventory (TCI): a guide to its development and use. St Louis: Washington University, Center for Psychobiology of Personality.
Cloninger CR, Svrakic DM & Przybeck TR (1993) A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Archives of General Psychiatry 50(12): 975–990. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820240059008
Condello G, Puggina A, Aleksovska K, Buck C, Burns C, Cardon G et al. on behalf of the DEDIPAC consortium (2017) Behavioral determinants of physical activity across the life course: A “DEterminants of DIet and Physical ACtivity” (DEDIPAC) umbrella systematic literature review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 14(1): 58. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-017-0510-2
Costa PT & McCrae RR (1992) Four ways five factors are basic. Personality and Individual Differences 13(6): 653–665. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(92)90236-I
Current Care Guidelines. Working group set up by the Finnish Medical Society Duodecim and the Finnish Psychiatric Association (2025) Depression. The Finnish Medical Society Duodecim. Helsinki. Available online: www.kaypahoito.fi (accessed 18 April 2025).
da Rocha EEM, Alves VGF & da Fonseca RBV (2006) Indirect calorimetry: Methodology, instruments and clinical application. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care 9(3). https://journals.lww.com/co-clinicalnutrition/fulltext/2006/05000/indirect_calorimetry__methodology,_instruments_and.12.aspx
Dattani S, Rodés-Guirao L, Ritchie H & Roser M (2023) Data page: Depressive disorders prevalence. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/depressive-disorders-prevalence-ihme
De Cocker K, Biddle SJH, Teychenne MJ & Bennie JA (2021) Is all activity equal? Associations between different domains of physical activity and depressive symptom severity among 261,121 European adults. Depression and Anxiety 38(9): 950–960. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.23157
del Pozo Cruz B, Alfonso-Rosa RM, McGregor D, Chastin SF, Palarea-Albaladejo J & del Pozo Cruz J (2020) Sedentary behaviour is associated with depression symptoms: Compositional data analysis from a representative sample of 3233 US adults and older adults assessed with accelerometers. Journal of Affective Disorders 265: 59–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JAD.2020.01.023
Di Lodovico L, Hanachi M, Duriez P & Gorwood P (2022) The fitter I am, the larger I feel: The vicious circle of physical exercise in anorexia nervosa. Nutrients 14(21). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14214507
DiPietro L, Al-Ansari SS, Biddle SJH, Borodulin K, Bull FC, Buman MP et al. (2020) Advancing the global physical activity agenda: Recommendations for future research by the 2020 WHO physical activity and sedentary behavior guidelines development group. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 17(1): 143. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-020-01042-2
Donaldson SC, Montoye AHK, Tuttle MS & Kaminsky LA (2016) Variability of objectively measured sedentary behavior. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 48(4): 755-61. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000828.
Dumuid D, Simm P, Wake M, Burgner D, Juonala M, Wu F et al. (2020) The “Goldilocks day” for children’s skeletal health: Compositional data analysis of 24‐hour activity behaviors. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 35(12): 2393–2403. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbmr.4143
Dumuid D, Stanford TE, Martin-Fernández JA, Pedišić, Ž, Maher CA, Lewis LK et al. (2018) Compositional data analysis for physical activity, sedentary time and sleep research. Statistical Methods in Medical Research 27(12): 3726–3738. https://doi.org/10.1177/0962280217710835
Ekblom-Bak E, Olsson G, Ekblom Ö, Ekblom B, Bergström G & Börjesson M (2015) The daily movement pattern and fulfilment of physical activity recommendations in Swedish middle-aged adults: the SCAPIS pilot study. PLoS One 10(5): e0126336.
Environmental Systems Research Institute (2013) ArcGIS Desktop: Release 10.2. Esri, Redlands, California.
Environmental Systems Research Institute (2022) ArcGIS Pro 3.0.3. Esri, Redlands, California.
Evans-Lacko S, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Al-Hamzawi A, Alonso J, Benjet C, Bruffaerts R et al. (2018) Socio-economic variations in the mental health treatment gap for people with anxiety, mood, and substance use disorders: Results from the WHO World Mental Health (WMH) surveys. Psychological Medicine 48(9): 1560–1571. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717003336
Fan JX, Wen M & Kowaleski-Jones L (2014) Rural–urban differences in objective and subjective measures of physical activity: Findings From the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003–2006. Preventing Chronic Disease 11: e141. https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd11.140189
Fang H, Tu S, Sheng J & Shao A (2019) Depression in sleep disturbance: A review on a bidirectional relationship, mechanisms and treatment. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine 23(4): 2324–2332. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcmm.14170
Farrahi V, Kangas M, Walmsley R, Niemelä M, Kiviniemi A, Puukka K et al. (2021) Compositional associations of sleep and activities within the 24-h cycle with cardiometabolic health markers in adults. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 53(2): 324–332. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002481
Felez-Nobrega M, Bort-Roig J, Ma R, Romano E, Faires M, Stubbs B et al. (2021) Light-intensity physical activity and mental ill health: A systematic review of observational studies in the general population. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 18(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-021-01196-7
Feng J, Glass TA, Curriero FC, Stewart WF & Schwartz BS (2010) The built environment and obesity: A systematic review of the epidemiologic evidence. Health & Place 16(2): 175–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2009.09.008
Ferrari AJ, Charlson FJ, Norman RE, Flaxman AD, Patten SB, Vos T et al. (2013) The epidemiological modelling of major depressive disorder: Application for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. PLOS ONE 8(7): e69637. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069637
Finnish Environment Institute; Statistics Finland (2024) YKR-ruutuaineisto. Finnish Monitoring System of Spatial Structure and Urban Form. https://ckan.ymparisto.fi/dataset/ykr-ruutuaineisto (accessed 7 May 2025)
Finnish Environment Institute (2010) YKR Urban-rural classification. https://ckan.ymparisto.fi/dataset/kaupunki-maaseutu-luokitus-ykr (accessed 7 May 2025)
Finnish Environment Institute (partly LUKE, MAVI, LIVI, DVV, EU MM. 01/2017) (2024) CORINE Land Cover 2018. https://ckan.ymparisto.fi/dataset/corine-maanpeite-2018 (accessed 7 May 2025)
Flowerdew R, Manley DJ & Sabel CE (2008) Neighbourhood effects on health: Does it matter where you draw the boundaries? Social Science & Medicine 66(6): 1241–1255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.11.042
García-Batista ZE, Guerra-Peña K, Cano-Vindel A, Herrera-Martínez SX & Medrano LA (2018) Validity and reliability of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) in general and hospital population of Dominican Republic. PLoS ONE 13(6). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0199750
Garey L, Olofsson H, Garza T, Rogers AH, Kauffman BY & Zvolensky MJ (2020) Directional effects of anxiety and depressive disorders with substance use: A review of recent prospective research. Current Addiction Reports 7(3): 344–355. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-020-00321-z
Gariepy G, Thombs BD, Kestens Y, Kaufman JS, Blair A & Schmitz N (2015) The neighbourhood built environment and trajectories of depression symptom episodes in adults: A latent class growth analysis. PLOS ONE 10(7): e0133603. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0133603
Garrett JK, White MP, Elliott LR, Wheeler BW & Fleming LE (2020) Urban nature and physical activity: Investigating associations using self-reported and accelerometer data and the role of household income. Environmental Research 190: 109899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109899
Generaal E, Timmermans EJ, Dekkers JEC, Smit JH & Penninx BWJH (2019) Not urbanization level but socioeconomic, physical and social neighbourhood characteristics are associated with presence and severity of depressive and anxiety disorders. Psychological Medicine 49(1): 149–161. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291718000612
Georgiou M, Morison G, Smith N, Tieges Z & Chastin S (2021) Mechanisms of impact of blue spaces on human health: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052486
Ghassemzadeh H, Mojtabai R, Karamghadiri N & Ebrahimkhani N (2005) Psychometric properties of a Persian‐language version of the Beck Depression Inventory – Second edition: BDI‐II‐PERSIAN. Depression and Anxiety 21(4): 185–192. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20070
Godin G & Shephard RJ (1985) A simple method to assess exercise behavior in the community. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences. Journal Canadien des Sciences Appliquées au Sport 10(3): 141–146.
Gomes-Oliveira MH, Gorenstein C, Neto FL, Andrade LH & Wang YP (2012) Validation of the Brazilian Portuguese version of the Beck Depression Inventory-II in a community sample. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria 34(4): 389–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rbp.2012.03.005
Gonzales-Inca C, Pentti J, Stenholm S, Suominen S, Vahtera J & Käyhkö N (2022) Residential greenness and risks of depression: Longitudinal associations with different greenness indicators and spatial scales in a Finnish population cohort. Health & Place 74: 102760. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.HEALTHPLACE.2022.102760
González DA, Rodríguez AR & Reyes-Lagunes I (2015) Adaptation of the BDI-II in Mexico. Salud Mental 38(4): 237–244. https://doi.org/10.17711/SM.0185-3325.2015.033
Groenewegen PP, van den Berg AE, Maas J, Verheij RA & de Vries S (2012) Is a green residential environment better for health? If so, why? Annals of the Association of American Geographers 102(5): 996–1003. https://doi.org/10.1080/00045608.2012.674899
Gupta N, Korshøj M, Dumuid D, Coenen P, Allesøe K & Holtermann A (2019) Daily domain-specific time-use composition of physical behaviors and blood pressure. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-018-0766-1
Gupta N, Mathiassen SE, Mateu-Figueras G, Heiden M, Hallman DM, Jørgensen MB et al. (2018) A comparison of standard and compositional data analysis in studies addressing group differences in sedentary behavior and physical activity. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 15(1): 53. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-018-0685-1
Guthold R, Ono T, Strong KL, Chatterji S & Morabia A (2008) Worldwide variability in physical inactivity: A 51-country survey. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 34(6): 486–494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2008.02.013
Hall SA, Kaufman JS & Ricketts TC (2006) Defining urban and rural areas in U.S. epidemiologic studies. Journal of Urban Health 83(2): 162-175. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-005-9016-3
Hamilton M (1960) A rating scale for depression. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 23(1): 56–62. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.23.1.56
Hasanzadeh K, Laatikainen T & Kyttä M (2018) A place-based model of local activity spaces: Individual place exposure and characteristics. Journal of Geographical Systems 20(3): 227–252. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10109-017-0264-z
Hautala A, Martinmaki K, Kiviniemi A, Kinnunen H, Virtanen P, Jaatinen J et al. (2012) Effects of habitual physical activity on response to endurance training. Journal of Sports Sciences 30(6): 563–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2012.658080
Helmerhorst HHJF, Brage S, Warren J, Besson H & Ekelund U (2012) A systematic review of reliability and objective criterion-related validity of physical activity questionnaires. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 9(1): 103. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-103
Helminen V, Nurmio K, Rehunen A, Ristimäki M, Oinonen K, Tiitu M et al. (2014) Kaupunki‐maaseutu‐alueluokitus. Paikkatietoihin perustuvan alueluokituksen muodostamisperiaatteet. [Urban‐rural‐classification: The basis for development of geographical information‐based area classification system]. Suomen ympäristökeskus. http://hdl.handle.net/10138/135861
Hills AP, Mokhtar N & Byrne NM (2014) Assessment of physical activity and energy expenditure: An overview of objective measures. Frontiers in Nutrition 1: 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2014.00005
Hillsdon M, Coombes E, Griew, P & Jones A (2015) An assessment of the relevance of the home neighbourhood for understanding environmental influences on physical activity: how far from home do people roam? International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 12(100). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-015-0260-y
Hirshkowitz M, Whiton K, Albert SM, Alessi C, Bruni O, DonCarlos L et al. (2015) National Sleep Foundation’s updated sleep duration recommendations: Final report. Sleep Health 1(4): 233–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2015.10.004
Holliday KM, Howard AG, Emch M, Rodríguez DA & Evenson KR (2017) Are buffers around home representative of physical activity spaces among adults? Health & Place 45: 181–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2017.03.013
Holtermann A, Hansen JV, Burr H, Søgaard K & Sjøgaard G (2012) The health paradox of occupational and leisure-time physical activity. British Journal of Sports Medicine 46(4): 291–295. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2010.079582
Huang Y, Li L, Gan Y, Wang C, Jiang H, Cao S et al. (2020) Sedentary behaviors and risk of depression: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Translational Psychiatry 10(1): 26. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-0715-z
Husu P, Tokola K, Vähä-Ypyä H & Vasankari T (2022) Liikuntaraportti: Suomalaisten mitattu liikkuminen, paikallaanolo ja fyysinen kunto 2010: Terveyttä edistävän liikunnan nykytila ja muutokset. Opetus- ja Kulttuuriministeriön julkaisuja 33. http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-263-808-3
IBM Corp. (2011) IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows. IBM Corp., Armonk, New York.
Jauho A-M, Pyky R, Ahola R, Kangas M, Virtanen P, Korpelainen R et al. (2015) Effect of wrist-worn activity monitor feedback on physical activity behavior: A randomized controlled trial in Finnish young men. Preventive Medicine Reports 2: 628–634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2015.07.005
Kandola AA, del Pozo Cruz B, Osborn DPJ, Stubbs B, Choi KW & Hayes JF (2021) Impact of replacing sedentary behaviour with other movement behaviours on depression and anxiety symptoms: A prospective cohort study in the UK Biobank. BMC Medicine 19(1): 133. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-021-02007-3
Kandola A, Ashdown-Franks G, Hendrikse J, Sabiston CM & Stubbs B (2019) Physical activity and depression: Towards understanding the antidepressant mechanisms of physical activity. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 107: 525–539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.09.040
Kangas K, Pyky R, Tarvainen O, Puhakka S, Karhu J, Kangas M et al. (2024) Associations between biodiversity, forest characteristics, distance to blue space and accelerometer-measured physical activity: Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966 Study. Leisure Sciences 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2024.2427677
Katzmarzyk PT, Church TS, Craig CL & Bouchard C (2009) Sitting time and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 41(5): 998–1005. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181930355
Kessler RC & Bromet EJ (2013) The epidemiology of depression across cultures. Annual Review of Public Health 34(1): 119–138. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031912-114409
Kim D (2008) Blues from the neighborhood? Neighborhood characteristics and depression. Epidemiologic Reviews 30: 101–117. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxn009
Kinnunen H, Häkkinen K, Schumann M, Karavirta L, Westerterp KR & Kyröläinen H (2019) Training-induced changes in daily energy expenditure: Methodological evaluation using wrist-worn accelerometer, heart rate monitor, and doubly labeled water technique. PLOS ONE 14(7): e0219563. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219563
Kinnunen H, Tanskanen M, Kyröläinen H & Westerterp KR (2012) Wrist-worn accelerometers in assessment of energy expenditure during intensive training. Physiological Measurement 33(11): 1841–1854. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/33/11/1841
Klein DN, Kotov R & Bufferd SJ (2011) Personality and depression: Explanatory models and review of the evidence. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 7: 269–295. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104540
Kohl HW. 3rd, Craig CL, Lambert EV, Inoue S, Alkandari JR, Leetongin G et al. (2012) The pandemic of physical inactivity: Global action for public health. Lancet 380(9838): 294–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60898-8
Kojima M, Furukawa TA, Takahashi H, Kawai M, Nagaya T & Tokudome S (2002) Cross-cultural validation of the Beck Depression Inventory-II in Japan. Psychiatry Research 110(3): 291–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1781(02)00106-3
Komulainen J, Lehtonen J & Mäkelä M (2012) Psykiatrian luokituskäsikirja: Suomalainen tautiluokitus ICD-10:n psykiatriaan liittyvät koodit. THL, Tampere. https://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-245-549-9
Konijnendijk CC (2023) Evidence-based guidelines for greener, healthier, more resilient neighbourhoods: Introducing the 3–30–300 rule. Journal of Forestry Research 34(3): 821–830. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-022-01523-z
Kredlow MA, Capozzoli MC, Hearon BA, Calkins AW & Otto MW (2015) The effects of physical activity on sleep: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 38(3): 427–449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-015-9617-6
Krendl AC & Pescosolido BA (2020) Countries and cultural differences in the stigma of mental illness: The east–west divide. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 51(2): 149–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022119901297
Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JBW & Löwe B (2009) An ultra-brief screening scale for anxiety and depression: The PHQ–4. Psychosomatics 50(6): 613–621. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3182(09)70864-3
Kuehner C (2017) Why is depression more common among women than among men? The Lancet Psychiatry 4(2): 146–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30263-2
Kwan M-P (2012) The uncertain geographic context problem. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 102(5): 958–968. https://doi.org/10.1080/00045608.2012.687349
Kyttä M, Broberg A, Tzoulas T & Snabb K (2013) Towards contextually sensitive urban densification: Location-based softGIS knowledge revealing perceived residential environmental quality. Landscape and Urban Planning 113: 30–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2013.01.008
Kärmeniemi M, Lankila T, Ikäheimo T, Koivumaa-Honkanen H & Korpelainen R (2018) The built environment as a determinant of physical activity: A systematic review of longitudinal studies and natural experiments. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 52(3): 239–251. https://doi.org/10.1093/abm/kax043
Kärmeniemi M, Lankila T, Ikäheimo T, Puhakka S, Niemelä M, Jämsä T et al. (2019) Residential relocation trajectories and neighborhood density, mixed land use and access networks as predictors of walking and bicycling in the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 16(1): 88. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-019-0856-8
Laatikainen TE, Hasanzadeh K & Kyttä M (2018) Capturing exposure in environmental health research: Challenges and opportunities of different activity space models. International Journal of Health Geographics 17(1): 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12942-018-0149-5
Lafortune L, Martin S, Kelly S, Kuhn I, Remes O, Cowan A et al. (2016) Behavioural risk factors in mid-life associated with successful ageing, disability, dementia and frailty in later life: A rapid systematic review. PloS One 11(2): e0144405. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0144405
Lankila T, Näyhä S, Rautio A, Koiranen M, Rusanen J & Taanila A (2013) Health and well-being of movers in rural and urban areas – A grid-based analysis of northern Finland birth cohort 1966. Social Science & Medicine 76: 169–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.10.021
Lauber C & Rössler W (2007) Stigma towards people with mental illness in developing countries in Asia. International Review of Psychiatry 19(2): 157–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540260701278903
Lauderdale DS, Knutson KL, Yan LL, Rathouz PJ, Hulley SB, Sidney et al. (2006) Objectively measured sleep characteristics among early-middle-aged adults: The CARDIA study. American Journal of Epidemiology 164(1): 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwj199
Leal C & Chaix B (2011) The influence of geographic life environments on cardiometabolic risk factors: A systematic review, a methodological assessment and a research agenda. Obesity Reviews: An Official Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 12(3): 217–230. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2010.00726.x
Lear SA, Hu W, Rangarajan S, Gasevic D, Leong D, Iqbal R et al. (2017) The effect of physical activity on mortality and cardiovascular disease in 130,000 people from 17 high-income, middle-income, and low-income countries: The PURE study. Lancet 390(10113): 2643–2654. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31634-3
Lee I-M, Shiroma EJ, Lobelo F, Puska P, Blair SN & Katzmarzyk PT (2012) Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: An analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy. Lancet 380(9838): 219–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61031-9
Lee PH, Macfarlane DJ, Lam TH & Stewart SM (2011) Validity of the international physical activity questionnaire short form (IPAQ-SF): A systematic review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 8(1): 115. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-8-115
Leinonen A.-M, Ahola R, Kulmala J, Hakonen H, Vähä-Ypyä H, Herzig K.-H et al. (2017) Measuring Physical Activity in Free-Living Conditions—Comparison of Three Accelerometry-Based Methods. Frontiers in Physiology 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2016.00681
Li J, Wang H, Li M, Shen Q, Li X, Zhang Y et al. (2020) Effect of alcohol use disorders and alcohol intake on the risk of subsequent depressive symptoms: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Addiction 115(7): 1224–1243. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14935
Liu D, Kwan M-P & Kan Z (2021) Analysis of urban green space accessibility and distribution inequity in the City of Chicago. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 59: 127029. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2021.127029
Liu Z, Chen X, Cui H, Ma Y, Gao N, Li X et al. (2023) Green space exposure on depression and anxiety outcomes: A meta-analysis. Environmental Research 231: 116303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.116303
Lorant V, Deliège D, Eaton W, Robert A, Philippot P & Ansseau M (2003) Socioeconomic inequalities in depression: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Epidemiology 157(2): 98–112. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwf182
Markkula N, Suvisaari J, Saarni SI, Pirkola S, Peña S, Saarni S et al. (2015) Prevalence and correlates of major depressive disorder and dysthymia in an eleven-year follow-up: Results from the Finnish Health 2011 Survey. Journal of Affective Disorders 173: 73–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.10.015
Mathie MJ, Coster ACF, Lovell NH & Celler BG (2004) Accelerometry: Providing an integrated, practical method for long-term, ambulatory monitoring of human movement. Physiological Measurement 25(2): R1. https://doi.org/10.1088/0967-3334/25/2/R01
McCambridge J, Witton J & Elbourne DR (2014) Systematic review of the Hawthorne effect: New concepts are needed to study research participation effects. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 67(3): 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2013.08.015
McGregor DE, Palarea-Albaladejo J, Dall PM, Del Pozo Cruz B & Chastin SFM (2021) Compositional analysis of the association between mortality and 24-hour movement behaviour from NHANES. European Journal of Preventive Cardiology 28(7): 791–798. https://doi.org/10.1177/2047487319867783
Miao J, Wu X & Sun X (2019) Neighborhood, social cohesion, and the elderly’s depression in Shanghai. Social Science and Medicine 229: 134–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.08.022
Miettunen J, Nordström T, Jääskeläinen E & Rautio N (2024) Depressive and anxiety symptoms in two birth cohorts born 20 years apart. Paula Rantakallio Symposium on Birth Cohorts and Longitudinal Studies. https://unioulu.sharepoint.com/:b:/s/Liitetiedostot-Attachments/EabJXw0P3n1IsB4P0BuTIyUB3P0Y3gG-s4b9JQEMB84f3w?e=yoH31e (accessed 7 May 2025).
Montgomery SA & Asberg M (1979) A new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change. British Journal of Psychiatry 134(4): 382–389. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.134.4.382
Moudon AV, Lee C, Cheadle AD, Garvin C, Johnson D, Schmid TL et al. (2006) Operational definitions of walkable neighborhood: Theoretical and empirical insights. Journal of Physical Activity & Health 3(s1): S99–S117. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.3.s1.s99
Müller C, Paulsen L, Bucksch J & Wallmann-Sperlich B (2024) Built and natural environment correlates of physical activity of adults living in rural areas: A systematic review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 21(1): 52. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-024-01598-3
Neally SJ, Tamura K, Langerman SD, Claudel SE, Farmer N, Vijayakumar NP et al. (2022) Associations between neighborhood socioeconomic deprivation and severity of depression: Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2011–2014. SSM – Population Health 18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2022.101111
Niemelä MS, Kangas M, Ahola RJ, Auvinen JP, Leinonen A-M, Tammelin TH et al. (2019) Dose-response relation of self-reported and accelerometer-measured physical activity to perceived health in middle age: The Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966 Study. BMC Public Health 19(1): 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6359-8
Nivard MG, Dolan CV, Kendler KS, Kan KJ, Willemsen G, van Beijsterveldt CEM et al. (2015) Stability in symptoms of anxiety and depression as a function of genotype and environment: A longitudinal twin study from ages 3 to 63 years. Psychological Medicine 45(5): 1039–1049. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329171400213X
Noetel M, Sanders T, Gallardo-Gómez D, Taylor P, Cruz Bdel P, van den Hoek D et al. (2024) Effect of exercise for depression: Systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 384: e075847. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2023-075847
Nordström T, Miettunen J, Auvinen J, Ala-Mursula L, Keinänen-Kiukaanniemi S, Veijola J et al. (2022) Cohort profile: 46 years of follow-up of the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966 (NFBC1966). International Journal of Epidemiology 50(6): 1786-1787j. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyab109
Norman RE, Byambaa M, De R, Butchart A, Scott J & Vos T (2012) The long-term health consequences of child physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS Medicine 9(11): e1001349. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001349
Nuevo R, Dunn G, Dowrick C, Vázquez-Barquero JL, Casey P, Dalgard OS et al. (2008) Cross-cultural equivalence of the Beck Depression Inventory: A five-country analysis from the ODIN study. Journal of Affective Disorders 114(1): 156–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2008.06.021
O’Donoghue G, Kennedy A, Puggina A, Aleksovska K, Buck C, Burns C et al. (2018) Socio-economic determinants of physical activity across the life course: A “DEterminants of DIet and Physical ACtivity” (DEDIPAC) umbrella literature review. PLOS ONE 13(1): e0190737. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190737
O’Donoghue G, Perchoux C, Mensah K, Lakerveld J, van der Ploeg H, Bernaards C et al. on behalf of the DEDIPAC consortium (2016) A systematic review of correlates of sedentary behaviour in adults aged 18–65 years: A socio-ecological approach. BMC Public Health 16(1): 163. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-2841-3
Owen N, Sugiyama T, Eakin EE, Gardiner PA, Tremblay MS & Sallis JF (2011) Adults’ sedentary behavior: Determinants and interventions. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 41(2): 189–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2011.05.013
Pasanen S, Halonen JI, Suorsa K, Leskinen T, Gonzales-Inca C, Kestens Y et al. (2024) Exposure to useable green space and physical activity during active travel: A longitudinal GPS and accelerometer study before and after retirement. Health & Place 90: 103366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103366
Paterson DH & Warburton DE (2010) Physical activity and functional limitations in older adults: A systematic review related to Canada’s Physical Activity Guidelines. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 7: 38. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-7-38
Paunio T, Korhonen T, Hublin C, Partinen M, Koskenvuo K, Koskenvuo M et al. (2015) Poor sleep predicts symptoms of depression and disability retirement due to depression. Journal of Affective Disorders 172: 381–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.10.002
Pearce M, Garcia L, Abbas A, Strain T, Schuch FB, Golubic R et al. (2022) Association between physical activity and risk of depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry 79(6): 550–559. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.0609
Pedišić Z (2014) Measurement issues and poor adjustments for physical activity and sleep undermine sedentary behaviour research: The focus should shift to the balance between sleep, sedentary behaviour, standing and activity. Kinesiology 46(1): 135–146.
Perchoux C, Chaix B, Cummins S & Kestens Y (2013) Conceptualization and measurement of environmental exposure in epidemiology: Accounting for activity space related to daily mobility. Health & Place 21: 86–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2013.01.005
Piercy KL, Troiano RP, Ballard RM, Carlson SA, Fulton JE, Galuska DA et al. (2018) The Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. JAMA 320(19): 2020–2028. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.14854
Pontin FL, Jenneson VL, Morris MA, Clarke GP & Lomax NM (2022) Objectively measuring the association between the built environment and physical activity: A systematic review and reporting framework. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 19(1): 119. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-022-01352-7
Posit Team (2023) RStudio: Integrated development environment for R (2023.3.1.446). Posit Software, PBC, Boston, Massachusetts.
Poznanski EO, Cook SC & Carroll BJ (1979) A depression rating scale for children. Pediatrics 64(4): 442–450. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.64.4.442
Prince SA, Adamo KB, Hamel ME, Hardt J, Gorber SC & Tremblay M (2008) A comparison of direct versus self-report measures for assessing physical activity in adults: A systematic review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 5(1): 56. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-5-56
Prince SA, Reed JL, Martinello N, Adamo KB, Fodor JG, Hiremath S et al. (2016) Why are adult women physically active? A systematic review of prospective cohort studies to identify intrapersonal, social environmental and physical environmental determinants. Obesity Reviews: An Official Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 17(10): 919–944. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12432
Prince SA, Lancione S, Lang JJ, Amankwah N, de Groh M, Jaramillo Garcia A et al. (2022) Examining the state, quality and strength of the evidence in the research on built environments and physical activity among adults: An overview of reviews from high income countries. Health & Place 77: 102874 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2022.102874
Punakallio A, Lusa S, Ala-Mursula L, Ek E, Nevanperä N, Remes J et al. (2019) Personal meaning of work and perceived work ability among middle-aged workers with physically strenuous work: A Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966 Study. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 92(3): 371–381. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-019-01412-9
Putrik P, de Vries NK, Mujakovic S, van Amelsvoort L, Kant I, Kunst AE et al. (2015) Living environment matters: Relationships between neighborhood characteristics and health of the residents in a Dutch municipality. Journal of Community Health 40(1): 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10900-014-9894-y
R Core Team (2022) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. (4.2.2). R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. https://www.r-project.org/
Radloff LS (1977) The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement 1(3): 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
Rantakallio P (1988) The longitudinal study of the Northern Finland birth cohort of 1966. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 2(1): 59–88. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3016.1988.tb00180.x
Rautio N, Filatova S, Lehtiniemi H & Miettunen J (2018) Living environment and its relationship to depressive mood: A systematic review. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 64(1): 92–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764017744582
Rautio N, Seppänen M, Timonen M, Puhakka S, Kärmeniemi M, Miettunen J et al. (2024) Associations between neighbourhood characteristics, physical activity and depressive symptoms: The Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966 Study. European Journal of Public Health 34(1): 114–120. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckad215
Rich B (2023) table1: Tables of descriptive statistics in HTML. https://cran.r-project.org/package=table1 (accessed 7.5.2025)
Richardson R, Westley T, Gariépy G, Austin N & Nandi A (2015) Neighborhood socioeconomic conditions and depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 50(11): 1641–1656. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-015-1092-4
Ridgers ND & Fairclough S (2011) Assessing free-living physical activity using accelerometry: Practical issues for researchers and practitioners. European Journal of Sport Science 11: 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2010.501116
Rigolon A, Browning MHEM, McAnirlin O & Yoon H (2021) Green space and health equity: A systematic review on the potential of green space to reduce health disparities. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052563
Robinson E, Sutin AR, Daly M & Jones A (2022) A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal cohort studies comparing mental health before versus during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Journal of Affective Disorders 296: 567–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.09.098
Rollo S, Sckrapnick A, Campbell JE, Moore SA, Faulkner G & Tremblay MS (2023) Prevalence and correlates of meeting the Canadian 24-hour movement guidelines among a sample of Canadian parents during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Activity, Sedentary and Sleep Behaviors 2(1): 17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s44167-023-00027-3
Rosenberger ME, Fulton JE, Buman MP, Troiano RP, Grandner MA, Buchner DM et al. (2019) The 24-hour activity cycle: A new paradigm for physical activity. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 51(3): 454. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001811
Ross R, Chaput J-P, Giangregorio LM, Janssen I, Saunders TJ, Kho ME et al. (2020) Canadian 24-hour movement guidelines for adults aged 18–64 years and adults aged 65 years or older: An integration of physical activity, sedentary behaviour, and sleep. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism 45(10 (Suppl. 2)): S57–S102. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2020-0467
Sallis JF, Cervero RB, Ascher W, Henderson KA, Kraft MK & Kerr J (2006) An ecological approach to creating active living communities. Annual Review of Public Health 27: 297–322. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.27.021405.102100
Sampson L, Ettman CK & Galea S (2020) Urbanization, urbanicity, and depression: A review of the recent global literature. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 33(3). https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000588
Sarkar C, Webster C & Gallacher J (2018) Residential greenness and prevalence of major depressive disorders: A cross-sectional, observational, associational study of 94,879 adult UK Biobank participants. The Lancet Planetary Health 2(4): e162–e173. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(18)30051-2
Sartorius N (2007) Stigma and mental health. The Lancet 370(9590): 810–811. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61245-8
Schuch FB, Vancampfort D, Firth J, Rosenbaum S, Ward PB, Silva ES et al. (2018) Physical activity and incident depression: A meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. The American Journal of Psychiatry 175(7): 631–648. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.17111194
Schuch F, Vancampfort D, Firth J, Rosenbaum S, Ward P, Reichert T et al. (2017) Physical activity and sedentary behavior in people with major depressive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders 210: 139–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JAD.2016.10.050
Seppänen M, Lankila T, Niemelä M, Rautio N, Korpisaari M, Timonen M et al. Yang(2025) Compositional associations of 24-h physical activities, sedentary time and sleep with depressive symptoms in urban and rural residents: a cross-sectional study. BMC Medicine (23): 219. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-025-04051-9
Seppänen M, Lankila T, Auvinen J, Miettunen J, Korpelainen R & Timonen M (2022) Cross-cultural comparison of depressive symptoms on the Beck Depression Inventory-II, across six population samples. BJPsych Open 8(2): e46. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2022.13
Sharifi F, Nygaard A, Stone WM & Levin I (2021) Accessing green space in Melbourne: Measuring inequity and household mobility. Landscape and Urban Planning 207: 104004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2020.104004
Simonsohn U (2018) Two lines: A valid alternative to the invalid testing of U-shaped relationships with quadratic regressions. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science 1(4): 538–555. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245918805755
Singh B, Olds T, Curtis R, Dumuid D, Virgara R, Watson A et al. (2023) Effectiveness of physical activity interventions for improving depression, anxiety and distress: An overview of systematic reviews. British Journal of Sports Medicine bjsports-2022-106195. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2022-106195
Skender S, Schrotz-King P, Böhm J, Abbenhardt C, Gigic B, Chang-Claude J et al. (2015) Repeat physical activity measurement by accelerometry among colorectal cancer patients: Feasibility and minimal number of days of monitoring. BMC Research Notes 8(1): 222. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-015-1168-y
Skender S, Ose J, Chang-Claude J, Paskow M, Brühmann B, Siegel EM et al. (2016) Accelerometry and physical activity questionnaires - a systematic review. BMC Public Health 16: 515. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3172-0
Smith M, Hosking J, Woodward A, Witten K, MacMillan A, Field A et al. (2017) Systematic literature review of built environment effects on physical activity and active transport: An update and new findings on health equity. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 14(1): 158. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-017-0613-9
Stanhope J & Weinstein P (2023) What are green prescriptions? A scoping review. Journal of Primary Health Care 15(2): 155–161. https://doi.org/10.1071/HC23007
StataCorp (2019) Stata (Vol. 16). StataCorp LLC, College Station, Texas.
Stokols D (1992) Establishing and maintaining healthy environments: Toward a social ecology of health promotion. The American Psychologist 47(1): 6–22. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.47.1.6
Strath SJ, Kaminsky LA, Ainsworth BE, Ekelund U, Freedson PS, Gary RA et al. (2013) Guide to the assessment of physical activity: Clinical and research applications: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 128(20): 2259–2279. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.cir.0000435708.67487.da
Su JG, Dadvand P, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Bartoll X & Jerrett M (2019) Associations of green space metrics with health and behavior outcomes at different buffer sizes and remote sensing sensor resolutions, Environment International 126: 162-170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.02.008
Suija K, Timonen M, Suviola M, Jokelainen J, Järvelin M-R & Tammelin T (2013) The association between physical fitness and depressive symptoms among young adults: Results of the Northern Finland 1966 birth cohort study. BMC Public Health 13(1): 535. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-535
Templ M, Hron K & Filzmoser P (2011) robCompositions: An R-package for robust statistical analysis of compositional data. In Pawlowsky-Glahn V & Buccianti A (eds.) Compositional data analysis: Theory and applications, 341–355. John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey.
Trost SG, McIver KL & Pate RR (2005) Conducting accelerometer-based activity assessments in field-based research. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 37: 531–43. https://doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000185657.86065.98
The Finnish Transport Infrastructure Agency (2024) Digiroad. https://www.avoindata.fi/data/en_GB/dataset/digiroad (accessed 7 May 2025)
UKK Institute (2019) Weekly physical activity recommendation for 18–64-year-olds. https://www.ukkinstituutti.fi/liikkumisensuositus/aikuisten-liikkumisen-suositus (accessed 7 May 2025)
United Nations (2018) 68% of the world population projected to live in urban areas by 2050, says UN. https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html (accessed 7 May 2025)
United States Geological Survey (2024) USGS. https://www.usgs.gov/ (accessed 7 May 2025)
University of Oulu (2024) Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966. University of Oulu. http://urn.fi/urn:nbn:fi:att:bc1e5408-980e-4a62-b899-43bec3755243
US Department of Health and Human Services (2018) Physical activity guidelines for Americans (2nd ed). https://health.gov/sites/default/files/2019-09/Physical_Activity_Guidelines_2nd_edition.pdf (accessed 7 May 2025)
van den Boogaart KG, Tolosana-Delgado R & Bren M (2023) compositions: Compositional data analysis. https://cran.r-project.org/package=compositions (accessed 7.5.2025)
Verheij R (1996) Explaining urban-rural variations in health: A review of interactions between individual and environment. Social Science & Medicine 42(6): 923-935. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(95)00190-5
Viinikka A, Tiitu M, Heikinheimo V, Halonen JI, Nyberg E & Vierikko K (2023) Associations of neighborhood-level socioeconomic status, accessibility, and quality of green spaces in Finnish urban regions. Applied Geography 157: 102973. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2023.102973
Vingerhoets A (2013) Why only humans weep: Unravelling the mysteries of tears. Oxford University Press, Oxford. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198570240.001.0001
Virtanen M, Törmälehto S, Partonen T, Elovainio M, Ruuhela R, Hakulinen C et al. (2023) Seasonal patterns of sickness absence due to diagnosed mental disorders: A nationwide 12-year register linkage study. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences 32: e64. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796023000768
Vladimirov D, Niemelä S, Keinänen-Kiukaanniemi S, Ala-Mursula L, Auvinen J, Timonen M et al. (2018) Cloninger’s temperament dimensions and longitudinal alcohol use in early midlife: A Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966 Study. Alcohol: Clinical and Experimental Research 42(10): 1924–1932. https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.13857
Vlahov D & Galea S (2002) Urbanization, urbanicity, and health. Journal of Urban Health 79(4 Suppl 1): S1-S12. https://doi.org/10.1093/jurban/79.suppl_1.s1
von Glischinski M, von Brachel R & Hirschfeld G (2019) How depressed is “depressed”? A systematic review and diagnostic meta-analysis of optimal cut points for the Beck Depression Inventory revised (BDI-II). Quality of Life Research 28(5): 1111–1118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-018-2050-x
Vähä-Ypyä H, Vasankari T, Husu P, Suni J & Sievänen H (2015a) A universal, accurate intensity-based classification of different physical activities using raw data of accelerometer. Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging 35: 64–70. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpf.12127
Vähä-Ypyä H, Vasankari T, Husu P, Mänttäri A, Vuorimaa T, Suni J et al. (2015b) Validation of cut-points for evaluating the intensity of physical activity with accelerometry-based mean amplitude deviation (MAD). PloS One 10(8): e0134813. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0134813
Vähä-Ypyä H, Husu P, Suni J, Vasankari T & Sievänen H (2018) Reliable recognition of lying, sitting, and standing with a hip-worn accelerometer. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 28(3): 1092–1102. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.13017
Wang F & Boros S (2021) The effect of physical activity on sleep quality: A systematic review. European Journal of Physiotherapy 23(1): 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/21679169.2019.1623314
Wang L, He S, Yan N, Pan R, Niu Y & Li J (2023) Mediating role of depressive symptoms on the relationship between sleep duration and cognitive function. Scientific Reports 13(1): 4067. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31357-6
Wang Y-P & Gorenstein C (2013) Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory-II: A comprehensive review. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria 35(4): 416–431. https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2012-1048
Warren JM, Ekelund U, Besson H, Mezzani A, Geladas N & Vanhees L (2010) Assessment of physical activity: A review of methodologies with reference to epidemiological research: A report of the exercise physiology section of the European Association of Cardiovascular Prevention and Rehabilitation. European Journal of Cardiovascular Prevention and Rehabilitation 17(2): 127–139. https://doi.org/10.1097/HJR.0b013e32832ed875
Wennman H & Borodulin K (2021) Associations between physical activity types and reaching the physical activity guidelines: The FinHealth 2017 Study. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 31(2): 418–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.13840
Wennman H, Kronholm E, Partonen T, Tolvanen A, Peltonen M, Vasankari T et al. (2014) Physical activity and sleep profiles in Finnish men and women. BMC Public Health 14(1): 82. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-82
White RL, Babic MJ, Parker PD, Lubans DR, Astell-Burt T & Lonsdale C (2017) Domain-specific physical activity and mental health: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 52(5): 653–666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2016.12.008
WHO (2024) International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems (ICD). https://www.who.int/standards/classifications/classification-of-diseases (accessed 7 May 2025)
Wickham H, Averick M, Bryan J, Chang W, McGowan LD, François R et al. (2019) Welcome to the {tidyverse}. Journal of Open Source Software 4(43): 1686. https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.01686
World Health Organization (2017) Depression and other common mental disorders: Global health estimates. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/254610/WHO-MSD-MER-2017.2-eng.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed 7 May 2025)
Wray NR, Ripke S, Mattheisen M, Trzaskowski M, Byrne EM, Abdellaoui A et al. (2018) Genome-wide association analyses identify 44 risk variants and refine the genetic architecture of major depression. Nature Genetics 50(5): 668–681. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-018-0090-3
Xiong J, Lipsitz O, Nasri F, Lui LMW, Gill H, Phan L et al. (2020) Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on mental health in the general population: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders 277: 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.08.001
Xu Y, Zeng L, Zou K, Shan S, Wang X, Xiong J et al. (2021) Role of dietary factors in the prevention and treatment for depression: An umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective studies. Translational Psychiatry 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01590-6
Yang B-Y, Zhao T, Hu L-X, Browning MHEM, Heinrich J, Dharmage SC et al. (2021) Greenspace and human health: An umbrella review. Innovation 2(4). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xinn.2021.100164
Yang C-C & Hsu Y-L (2010) A review of accelerometry-based wearable motion detectors for physical activity monitoring. Sensors (Basel, Switzerland) 10(8): 7772–7788. https://doi.org/10.3390/s100807772
Yesavage JA, Brink TL, Rose TL, Lum O, Huang V, Adey M et al. (1982) Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: A preliminary report. Journal of Psychiatric Research 17(1): 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3956(82)90033-4
Zhai L, Zhang H & Zhang D (2015) Sleep duration and depression among adults: A meta-analysis of prospective studies. Depression and Anxiety 32(9): 664–670. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22386
Zhang R, Zhang C-Q & Rhodes RE (2021) The pathways linking objectively-measured greenspace exposure and mental health: A systematic review of observational studies. Environmental Research 198: 111233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.111233
Zhang X & Speakman JR (2019) Genetic factors associated with human physical activity: Are your genes too tight to prevent you exercising? Endocrinology 160(4): 840–852. https://doi.org/10.1210/en.2018-00873
Zigmond AS & Snaith RP (1983) The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 67(6): 361–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.x
Downloads
Additional Files
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Marjo Seppänen
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
